A New Guide to
Actors, Authors, concepts, Data Bases, Theories, and Literature, Amsterdam:
North-Holland Publishimg Co.
Appendix B
A. Governmental Definitions
1. U.S.
Congress (1977): " [International terorism includes any other]...unlawful
act which results in the death, bodily harm, or forcivle deprivation
of liberty to any person, or in the violent destruction of property,
or an attempt or credible threat to commit any such act, if the act,
threat, or attempt is commetted or takes effect (A) outside the territory
of a state of which the alleged offender is a national; or (B) outsode
the territoru of the state against which the act is directed; or (C)
within the teritoru of the state against which the act is directed and
the alleged offender knows or has reason to know that a person against
whom the act is directed is not a national of that state; or (D) within
the territory of any state wen found to have been supported by a foreign
state... irrespective of the nationality of the alleged offender: provided,
that the act of international terrorism is (i) intended to damage or
threaten the interests of or obtain comcessions from a state or an internation
organization; and (II) not committed in the course of military and paramilitary
operation directed essentially against military forces or military targets
of a state or an organized armed group."
2. U.S.
Central Intelligence Agencu (1980): "...the threat or use of violince
for political purposes by individuals or groups, whether acting for
, or in opposition to established goverment authority , when such actions
are intended to shock or intimidate a large group wider than the immediate
victims."
3. U.S.
Federal Bureau of Investigation ( 1980 ) " Terrorism is defined
as the unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property
to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any
segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives. A
terrorist incident is defined as a violent act or am act dangerous to
human life in violation of the criminal laws of the United States or
of any state to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population,
or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives."
4.U.S
Department of Justice ( 1984 ): "... violent criminal conduct apparently
intended: (1) to intimidate or coerce a civilian population: (2) to
influence the conduct of a government by intimidation or coercion: or
(3) to affect the conduyct of a government by assassination or kidnapping."
5.U.S.
Army ( and some Commonwealth armies as well) (1983): " Terrorism
( ASCC [ = standardized for use by the U.S. Army and the American, Australian,
British, Canadian, and New Zealand air forces]): The use or therat of
violence in furthetance of a political aim. See also sabotage; subversion."
6. U.S.
Department of Defense ( 1983 ): "... the unlawful use or threatened
use of force or violence by a revolutionaru organization against ondividuals
or property with the imtention of coercing or intimidating government
or societies, often for pollitical or ideological purposes."
7. U.S.
Army ( 1983): "... the calctlated use of violence or the threat
of violence to attain goals political, religous, or idelolgical in nature,
This is done through intimidation, corecion, or instilling fear. Terrorism
influence an audience beyond the immediate victims." [ This definition
was scheduled to be replaced in 1986 by the following one:]
8.U.S.Department
of Defense ( 1986): "... the unlawful use or threatened use of
force or violence against individuals or property to coerce or intimidate
governments or societies, often to achieve political, religious or ideological
objectives."
9.U.S.
Department of State (1983 ): "... premeditated, politically motivated
violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups
o r clandestine state agents."
10. U.S.
Vice Presicent's Task Force ( 1986): "... the unlawul use or threat
of violence against persons or property to further political or social
objectives. It is generally intended to intimidate or coerce a government,
individuals or grou;s to modify their behavior or policies."
11.German
Federal Republic, Office for the protection of the Constitution ( 1985
):"Terrorism is the enduringly conducted struggle for political
goals, which are intended to be achieved by means of assaults on the
life and property of other persons, especially by means of severe crimes
as detailed in art. 129a, sect. 1 of the penal law book ( above all:
murder, homicide, extortionist kidnapping, arson, setting off a blast
by explosives) or by means of othet acts of violence, which serve as
preparation of such criminal acts,"
12. United
Kingdom (1974): For the purposes of the legislstion, terrorism is "
the use of violence for political ends, and includes any use of violence
for the purpose of putting the public or any section of the public in
fear.
B.
Academic Definitions
13.V.K.
Anand ( 1984): "... terrorism is descrity as the art of compelling
an individual, grou;, pr authority to adopt a particular disposition
pr accept the imposed demands under conditions of fear created by passive
action or violence - demonstrated, threatened or impoied."
14.U. Backes
and E. Jesse (1985): " Terrorism has a communicative function.
By means of a systematic application of violence involving the element
of surprise, fear and terror - according to the etymological meaning
of the word - are intended to be produced in the social group that os
fought; at the same time it is intended to arouse the attention and
( in the long run ) sympathy of larger sections of the population for
certain political purposes."
15.A.H.
Buckelew ( 1986): " terrorism is defined as violent, criminal behavior
designed primarily to generate fear in the communety, or in a substantial
segment of the community, for political purposes.:
16.R.S.
Cline and Y. Alexander (1985): " It is suggested that state-sponsored
terrorism be defined as: "The deliberate employment of violence
or the threat of use of violence by sovereign states ( or sub- national
groups encouraged or assisted by sovereign states) to attain strategic
and political objectives by acts in violation of law intended to create
overwhelming fear in a target population larger than the civilian pr
military victims attacked or threatened." It is further suggested
that recent history indicates: The main goal of this state-sponsored
terrorism now at the end of the twentieth century is to undermine selectively
the policies, the psycho-social stability, and political governability
of pluralist states with representative governments"
17.M. Crenshaw
(1983): " . . .a basic definition would include the following attributes:
the systematic use of unorthodox violence by small conspiratorial groups
with the purpose of manipulating political attitudes rather than physically
defeating as enemy. The intent of terrorist violence is psychological
and symbolic, not material. Terrorism is premeditated and purposeful
violence, employed in a struggle for political power. As Harold Lasswell
defined it: 'Terrorists are participants in the political process who
strive for political results by arousing acute anxieties.'''
18.R.D.
Crellnsten (1987): ". . .terrorism is conceived as a form of political
communication. More sprcifically, it is the deliberate use of violence
and threat of violence to evoke a state of fear (or terror) in a particular
victim or audience. The terror evoked is the vehicle by which allegiance
or compliance is maintained or weakened. Usually, the use and threat
of violence are directed at one group of targets (victims), while the
demands for compliance are directed toward a separate group of targets.
Hence, we tend to speak of a triangular relationship between the terrorist
and two distinct rarget groups. As for allegiances, the allegiance to
be established or maintained is that between the terrorist and one group
of targets, while the allegiance to be weakened is that between that
same group of targets from whom allegiance is sought and other groups
perceived by the terrorst to be enemies to his cause. No matter what
the specific end, all terrorism is designed to affect, in some way or
another, relationships among people, individuals or violence for communicative
purposes. How and why it is used varies according to the particular
context.''
19.B. Crozler
(1974): ". . . 'terrorism' means 'motivated violence for political
ends' (a definition that distinguishes terrorism from both vandalism
and non-political crime). Measures of extreme tepression, including
torture, used by States to oppress the population or to repress political
dissenters, who may or may not be terrorists or guerillas, are termed
'terror' (the converse of terrorism)."
